Elephants of India Status Report

Covering the rich diversity of mammal species in India, from tigers, elephants, rhinoceros and whales to primates, rodents and bats, Indian Mammals is field-ready, illustrated and comprehensive in approach. Rigorously researched, Indian Mammals reflects a lifetime's work by Vivek Menon, one of India's leading authorities on Indian wildlife. Planned for easy reference, this compact guide is the essential resource for wildlifers of any age, including animal watchers, eco-tourists and active conservationists. It features more than 440 species of both terrestrial and aquatic mammals with introductory pages on each order, describes key identification features, biometrics, behaviour, social strategies, habitat and distribution, includes over 1,000 carefully curated photographs and supplementary illustrations, 140-plus updated distribution maps, colour tabs for sections to facilitate ease of use, and live-action field notes from the author.

Most scholars hold a skeptical view of the war elephant of ancient India. I show that the skepticism of present-day historians derives from ancient Rome, at the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Empire, when the Romans, having defeated the elephant-deploying powers of the Hellenistic period, ended the use of war elephants in its growing empire for all time. Late Roman war elephant skepticism was taken up by Quintus Curtius Rufus, who embraced it and strengthened it rhetorically in speeches he devised and put into Alexander’s mouth, in his history of Alexander. In this way Roman skepticism about the value of the Indian war elephant was attributed to Alexander, two centuries previous to its formation among the Romans. In modern times the late Roman view that elephants have a tendency to panic and become a greater danger to their own side was turned into a settled truth about elephant physiology, but it does not accord with the evidence offered.

In 1879, King Leopold II of Belgium launched an ambitious plan to plunder Africa’s resources. The key to cracking open the continent, or so he thought, was its elephants — if only he could train them. And so he commissioned the charismatic Irish adventurer Frederick Carter to ship four tamed Asian elephants from India to the East African coast, where they were marched inland towards Congo. The ultimate aim was to establish a training school for African elephants. Following in the footsteps of the four elephants, Roberts pieces together the story of this long-forgotten expedition, in travels that take her to Belgium, Iraq, India, Tanzania and Congo. The storytelling brings to life a compelling cast of historic characters and modern voices, from ivory dealers to Catholic nuns, set against rich descriptions of the landscapes travelled. She digs deep into historic records to reckon with our broken relationship with animals, revealing an extraordinary — and enduring — story of colonial greed, ineptitude, hypocrisy, and folly.

Land development has impacted natural landforms extensively, causing a decline in resources and negative consequences to elephant populations, habitats, and gene flow. Often, elephants seek to fulfill basic needs by wandering into nearby human communities, which leads to human–elephant conflict (HEC), a serious threat to conserving this endangered species. Understanding elephant space use and connectivity among their habitats can offset barriers to ecological flow among fragmented populations. We focused on the Keonjhar Forest Division in Eastern India, where HEC has resulted in the deaths of ~300 people and several hundred elephants, and damaged ~4100 houses and ~12,700 acres of cropland between 2001 and 2018. Our objectives were to (1) analyze elephant space use based on their occupancy; (2) map connectivity by considering the land structure and HEC occurrences; (3) assess the quality of mapped connectivity and identify potential bottlenecks. We found that (1) the study area has the potential to sustain a significant elephant population by providing safe connectivity; (2) variables like forests, precipitation, rural built-up areas, cropland, and transportation networks were responsible for predicting elephant presence (0.407, SE = 0.098); (3) five habitat cores, interconnected by seven corridors were identified, of which three habitat cores were vital for maintaining connectivity; (4) landscape features, such as cropland, rural built-up, mining, and transportation networks created bottlenecks that could funnel elephant movement. Our findings also indicate that overlooking HEC in connectivity assessments could lead to overestimation of functionality. The study outcomes can be utilized as a preliminary tool for decision making and early planning during development projects.

The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), classified as endangered with fewer than 45,000 remaining, faces critical threats including habitat loss, poaching, human-elephant conflict, and captivity issues. Historically revered and utilized across Asia, their populations have declined over 75% since 1950 due to deforestation, agricultural expansion, and illegal poaching for ivory and body parts. Human population growth exacerbates conflicts, leading to injuries and fatalities on both sides. Conservation efforts include habitat restoration, reintroduction programs, community-based conflict mitigation, and policy changes, but much more remains necessary to prevent their extinction and ensure their survival in the wild.

Resource availability, predation risks, and habitat conditions play a role in determining herbivore resource use. Agricultural landscapes with sal Shorea robusta dominated forest fragments limited the recolonisation of elephants Elephas maximus. South Bengal is one such landscape, where we studied resource availability and use by elephants and the dependent negative interactions. We employed Quadrat sampling to assess the community characteristics of woody plants. We recorded the crops in the agricultural fields and obtained the details on crops in the entire landscape from the Agricultural Department. We used the feeding trail method to collect the data on forage use by two focal herds of elephants and record the plant resources they fed on. We calculated the Preference Index (PI) using resource availability and use by the elephants. We recorded 12,151 trees of 70 species in 708 quadrats (7.08 ha) in South Bengal. S. robusta had the highest Importance Value Index (IVI) of 151.78. Elephants fed on 13 wild plant species but preferred nine species, including Lannea grandis (PI = 2.93), Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb (PI = 2.67), and Gardenia gummifera (PI = 2.56). The agricultural produce in the diet of the elephant constituted ~ 54%, which contains 28.28% paddy, 13.96% potato, 7.03% other vegetables, and 4.93% sugarcane. The lower consumption of food resources from forests and a higher dependency on agricultural produce were apparent. This may be due to less forage availability in sal-dominated forests. An optimal quantity of food resources in the forests is necessary to avoid frequent crop foraging by elephants, which leads to increased human-elephant interactions. Changes in the habitat, including the replacement of S. robusta and Eucalyptus tereticornis with fodder species such as L. grandis and Aegle marmelos, would increase food availability in the forests and, in turn, might reduce human-elephant interactions, including negative interactions in the landscape.

Indian elephants, a subspecies of Asian elephants native to the Indian subcontinent, are endangered due to habitat loss, poaching, and human-wildlife conflict. They play a vital ecological role as keystone species but face threats from expanding human populations and infrastructure development. Conservation initiatives by organizations like IFAW and WTI focus on protecting migratory corridors, reducing human-elephant conflicts, and safeguarding habitats through community engagement, rescue operations, and protected areas. Despite their smaller size compared to African elephants and their limited range in mainland Asia, Indian elephants are crucial for maintaining biodiversity and ecological health, necessitating continued efforts to ensure their survival.

Indian elephants, a subspecies of Asian elephants native to the Indian subcontinent, are vital keystone species facing threats from habitat loss, poaching, and human-wildlife conflict. They are highly intelligent, social animals that play a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem health through seed dispersal and habitat modification. Their populations are declining rapidly due to habitat fragmentation, human encroachment, and illegal poaching for ivory and body parts. Conservation initiatives by organizations like IFAW and WTI focus on protecting migratory corridors, reducing human-elephant conflicts, and restoring habitats through community engagement and rescue operations. Despite these efforts, the future of Indian elephants remains uncertain, emphasizing the need for continued and expanded conservation actions.

The socio-economic aspects of the people who directly share space with elephants not only influence the occurrence of human-elephant conflict (HEC) but also shape their sentiments towards coexistence with elephants. The objectives of this paper are to (i) assess the demographic situation and map people’s sentiments towards elephants in the HEC hotspot villages of the Keonjhar forest division in India and (ii) rank the most suitable policy instruments and the urgency of mitigation strategies. The results indicated that cultivation and marginal agriculture were positively related with HEC incidences, whereas literacy and employment were negatively associated. Despite being severely affected by human–elephant conflict, many of the respondents (78%) in the HEC hotspot regions still had positive sentiments towards elephants. According to expert opinions, strengthening of laws regarding land use facilitation and interlinking conservation values to socio-cultural aspects need urgent implementation in order to balance infrastructural development and protection of ecosystems by enhancing community participation. Communal crop guarding, chilly-dung and honeybee fencing, accompanied by tracking and maintaining an elephant locational database are suggested as the HEC mitigation methods with highest urgency.

Landscape governance challenges, particularly in peri-urban contexts like the Bannerghatta National Park (BNP) region in South India, exemplify ‘wicked’ problems due to their inherent complexities. These challenges arise from a mix of conflicting interests, policy ambiguities, and sociocultural dynamics, which often blur the definition of problems and hinder effective solutions. Despite apparent options for resolution, stakeholder disagreements and deep uncertainties about implementation strategies complicate governance. This study, therefore, has two broad objectives. The first objective is to analyze the local discourses surrounding planned policy interventions around the BNP region in South India. Based on the findings, the second objective is to draw insights for sustainable natural resource governance research and practice. We applied Q-methodology to understand the discourses that underpin various conflicts in the rapidly urbanizing elephant corridor at BNP. We elicited information on how various local actors frame solutions to current collective action challenges in the BNP landscape and their perspectives on the proposed eco-sensitive zone notification, as well as the functioning of current policy interventions concerning conservation and development. The study uncovers the micropolitics and power regimes underpinning various natural resource governance challenges and demonstrates the utility of the Q-methodology in bringing diverse perspectives together in response to ‘wicked’ governance challenges.

Asian elephants often traverse large areas to gather food and water. However, the environment in which they live is dynamic (changing with the seasons). Some of these changes in the environment, however, are accelerated due to human-induced factors. To survive and persist in fragmented, human-dominated landscapes, especially in the Anthropocene, elephants often need to modify their behaviour. Some of these modifications may be short-term adaptations that include altering their time-activity budgets in response to changing local ecological and anthropogenic settings, while others could be long-term shifts in home ranges in response to large-scale changes in land use and global climatic events. In this chapter, using empirical data, the authors assess the behavioural adaptability of elephants, as determined by their innate biological variables, such as age, sex and grouping patterns at the population level. They also discuss the impacts of global climatic changes on the behaviour and distribution of Asian elephants, as evidenced through studies conducted on these aspects. They discuss how elephants, in general, avoid areas of high human use. In addition, their recent studies suggest that elephants may be altering their social systems and forming all-male groups—a novel social unit in Asian elephants—in highly human-dominated landscapes in order to persist and at times successfully exploit resources. The issues highlighted in this chapter may be significant for the future management of human-elephant conflict and the conservation of Asian elephants, as most management strategies do not take into account variability in elephant behaviour or impending climate change in implementation.

The Srivilliputhur Elephant Reserve is one of India's 32 elephant reserves. It is home to wild elephants as well as other wildlife. This study aims to document the fodder plants and foraging behaviour of elephants in the Srivilliputhur Elephant Reserve. Elephants in the Srivilliputhur Elephant Reserve consumed 61 plant species from 25 different families. In the current study, the majority of the fodder plants of Asian Elephants belonged to the families of Fabaceae, Poaceae, and Malvaceae. Elephants were found to feed more frequently on trees (66%), followed by shrubs (16%), herbs (9%), and climbers (6%). It was observed that the elephants ate both the browsing tree and grazing grass species during the wet season, but browsing tree species dominated during the dry season.

In Kerala, human-elephant conflicts (HEC) are reported in almost all parts of the Western Ghats region, exceptionally high in Wayanad. In recent years, there has been a notable surge in HEC occurrences throughout the state, leading to the loss of property, animals, and life. The dependency of humans on enclosures, the transformation of natural areas into plantations, and the fragmentation of natural ecosystems are the main reasons for the escalating conflict between people and elephants. As a result, it is necessary to study the suitability of habitat for elephants and ensure their conservation. The study aims to identify suitable elephant habitats in the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary using geospatial data based on their known association with environmental variables. This study employs the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), an approach to determining the weightings of individual parameters in assessing habitat suitability. The analysis findings indicated that the central portion of the study area within the Sultan Bathery range represents the most suitable area for elephant habitat followed by Kurichat and Tholpetti. The Habitat Suitability Map was validated by adding human-elephant conflict locational data, which illustrates that the Kurichiat range recorded the highest HEC conflict (50%), followed by Muthanga (29%), Sulthan Bathery (12%), and Tholpetti (9%). The map could assist in managing, conserving, and protecting forest resources and aid in decision-making activities.

Chhattisgarh, India, harbours a metapopulation of 250–300 Asian elephants Elephas maximus that has expanded its range from neighbouring states since 2000. Elephants in the state occur across a mosaic of forests interspersed with agricultural settlements, leading to frequent interactions with people, some of which culminate in conflict. We assessed patterns of crop losses as a result of elephant incursions, at two spatial scales. We found widespread crop losses, with 1,426 settlements in and around 10 forest divisions and four protected areas reporting elephant-related crop losses during 2015–2020. At the landscape scale, spanning c. 39,000 km2, intensity of habitat use by elephants, forest cover and number of forest patches explained variations in intensity of crop losses. At a finer spatial scale, covering c. 1,200 km2 of forest–agriculture matrix in Surguja, probability of crop loss was low near roads but high close to forest patches and was also affected by patch heterogeneity. Both male and female elephant groups fed on crops. As areas with high crop losses are also areas used intensively by elephants, management to increase elephant occupancy in relatively large and connected forest patches is imperative, to minimize crop losses and improve elephant conservation. Concomitantly, expansion of elephant range into agricultural areas that lack forests should be discouraged. In forest divisions, options to reduce negative human–elephant interactions include institutionalizing elephant monitoring, transparent and prompt ex gratia payment for crop losses, and the use of portable physical barriers.

Elephant ranges in Asia overlap with human-use areas, leading to frequent and often negative two-way interactions, a fraction of which result in human fatalities. Minimizing such negative interactions rests on gaining a mechanistic understanding of their patterns and underlying processes. In Chhattisgarh (India), a rewilding population of 250–300 elephants that have recently expanded their range from neighbouring states through dispersal has been causing annual losses of >60 human lives. Using logistic regression models, we examined the influences of eight plausible predictors of the occurrence of elephant-related human fatality incidents. We found that 70% of incidents occurred in areas with high-intensity habitat use by elephants; the other 30% were in areas of intermediate and sporadic elephant habitat use. The probability of human fatalities was high along the roads connecting settlements and in areas with frequent house break-ins by elephants, and this probability was also affected by the spatial geometry of forest patches. Immediate practical options to minimize fatal interactions include community-based early-warning systems and the use of portable barriers around settlements. Judicious landscape-level land-use planning aimed at maintaining the resilience of remnant intact elephant habitats will be critical to preventing the dispersal of elephants into suboptimal habitats, which can create complex conflict situations.

S’appuyant sur une recherche de terrain approfondie dans le nord-est de l’Inde, au sein de la population Khamti, cet ouvrage propose une ethnographie multi-espèces des relations de travail hommes-éléphants qui s’y déploient encore. L’auteur analyse non seulement l’action humaine mais également l’implication animale dans la mise en place et le maintien de ces relations de travail. Grâce aux descriptions riches et vivantes de Nicolas Lainé, le lecteur est en mesure de suivre et de comprendre l’ensemble du processus, de la capture d’un jeune éléphant de forêt à sa transformation en éléphant de village, comme une dynamique d’engagements réciproques. Les capacités cognitives et corporelles à la fois des humains et des éléphants sont prises en considération, ainsi que leurs influences mutuelles et les représentations qui découlent des contextes de communication et de collaboration manifestes entre les espèces. Cette approche multidisciplinaire permet alors de penser l’unité de travail homme-animal en termes d’interaction collaborative, voire d’engagement intersubjectif — ouvrant la voie à des réflexions sur les modalités mutuellement bénéfiques de l’existence des humains et des animaux dans un environnement partagé.

This paper focuses on addressing the issue of human-elephant conflict in India by implementing mitigation strategies, with a specific emphasis on Indian legislation. Human-elephant conflict is a significant problem in India as the shrinking habitats of elephants and the expansion of human settlements lead to encounters that pose risks to both humans and elephants. The paper provides an overview of the factors contributing to human-elephant conflict in India, such as habitat loss, encroachment, and resource competition. It then explores the legal framework related to wildlife conservation and protection in India, particularly highlighting the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 and relevant policies and guidelines. Various mitigation strategies are discussed to reduce human-elephant conflict, including habitat management and restoration, community participation and awareness, elephants' welfare and relocation, crop protection and compensation, and the use of early warning systems and technology. The study emphasizes the significance of Indian legislation, particularly the Wildlife Protection Act, in guiding and supporting these mitigation strategies. It acknowledges the challenges and limitations associated with their implementation and provides recommendations to enhance conflict mitigation efforts. By examining the intersection of human-elephant conflict and Indian legislation, this study contributes to a better understanding of the legal and policy framework for managing such conflicts. It provides valuable insights for policymakers, wildlife authorities, and conservation practitioners in developing effective strategies to mitigate human-elephant conflict in India.

The publication 'Right of Passage: Elephant Corridors of India' provides a comprehensive overview of the status, mapping, and conservation of elephant corridors across India. It emphasizes the importance of securing these corridors to facilitate the migration and survival of elephants in fragmented and human-dominated landscapes. The second edition updates the status of existing corridors, highlights threats such as land use change, encroachment, infrastructure development, and human-elephant conflict, and proposes conservation measures including legal protection, land securement, community involvement, and mitigation strategies. The document aims to guide policymakers, conservationists, and stakeholders in ensuring the long-term viability of elephant populations by maintaining habitat connectivity and reducing conflicts.

Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of zoonotic significance, caused by distinct members of the genus Leptospira, with a broad spectrum of hosts, including domestic and wild animals. The present paper reports the seroprevalence of leptospirosis among captive Asian elephants in Kerala. Whole blood samples were collected from fifty, apparently healthy captive elephants from different districts of Kerala state. The serum was separated from the whole blood and subjected to the Microscopic Agglutination Test (MAT) for detection of antibodies to different serovars of Leptospira. The test was carried out using actively grown cultures of twelve common leptospiral serovars. Out of the total of fifty serum samples screened by MAT, 19 samples (38 per cent) showed a positive reaction with antibody titres in a 1:200 dilution. The prevalent serovars were Pomona, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Hebdomadis, Grippotyphosa and Canicola, and the highest prevalence was noticed for the serovar Pomona. The positive results indicated the presence of infection or the previous exposure of captive elephants to leptospiral antigens. The high rate of prevalence of leptospiral antibodies in captive elephants warrants the monitoring of these animals for clinical disease and adopting the necessary control strategies for preventing this re-emerging zoonotic disease.

The experiment was carried out in 46 apparently health captive elephants maintained in different parts of Tamil Nadu, India during the period from August 2020 to April 2021 to assess and evolve the baseline reference values for serum biochemical parameters in captive Asian elephants raised in the Tamil Nadu state of India. As part of the periodical health assessment, blood samples were collected from auricular vein for 46 apparently healthy captive Asian elephants maintained in Tamil Nadu, India. Biochemical analyses were performed using auto biochemical analyzer using commercial kits as per the recommendations of the manufacturer. The mean±SE, lower and upper value, 95% and 99% of confidence interval of the serum biochemistry parameters comprised of glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin, cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium, serum enzymes AST, ALT, ALP, CK, GGT and LDH were evaluated. The observed values were found to be within the normal ranges reported for the captive elephants and there were no significant differences observed between the age groups. These serum biochemical values would serve as baseline reference to evaluate the health and clinical conditions of captive elephant populations, as well as for planning health care measures in elephants of this region and adjoining areas.

This article explores the cultural significance, current treatment, and ethical concerns surrounding elephants in India, particularly those in captivity used in religious festivals. It highlights the distress and abuse faced by temple elephants, the challenges of domestication, and the potential for humane alternatives such as robotic elephants. The piece features insights from National Geographic explorers Sangita Iyer and Jyothy Karat, emphasizing the need to balance tradition with animal welfare and discussing recent legal changes and innovative solutions to preserve cultural practices ethically.

This article explores the cultural significance and the harsh realities faced by temple elephants in India, highlighting issues of abuse, captivity, and the challenges of humane treatment. It features insights from National Geographic explorers Sangita Iyer and Jyothy Karat, discussing traditional practices, the impact of captivity, and innovative alternatives such as robotic elephants to preserve cultural traditions while ensuring animal welfare.

On the odd occasion, wild elephants in rural Assam, Northeast India, reveal themselves to be more-than-animal. For people living on the fringes of the forest, they are god-like creatures with supernatural powers of perception, able to grasp the hidden intentions and moral character of people. Drawing on ethnographic observations, animist literature, theories of witchcraft, and frameworks that foreground the different perceptual worlds of nonhumans, this paper will unpack how elephants can be divine agents and beings of wonder. Wonder arises at the limits of our conceptual resources and a deep uncertainty is at the core of divine encounters between human and elephant. This uncertainty is driven by three factors: first, regular explanations fail to make sense of elephant behavior; second, the person perceives a hidden connection between both beings that cannot be articulated; and, third, an awareness that the limits and reasons of nonhumans cannot be comprehensively grasped. Uncertain encounters with elephants can be revelatory and open people to unforeseen aspects of themselves and their environment. It is also from this position of uncertainty that anthropologists can better understand informants’ relations with nonhumans.